Prof. Boerner's Explorations

by Gerald Boerner

“The first important users of the process [calotype] were two Scotsmen, David 0. Hill and Robert Adamson in Edinburgh.”
— Michael Frizot, A New History of Photography

“They dreamed up compositions, going into villages to photograph fishermen or photographing masons working on the Scott Monument.”
— Michael Frizot, A New History of Photography

“Their [Hill and Adamson] collaboration, in which they shared technical and artistic responsibilities, was to last until Adamson’s premature death in January 1848, much longer than they had foreseen.”
— Michael Frizot, A New History of Photography

“Happily, Hill (or Adamson, or both) came to love and use photography for its own sake, and by some unknown combination of their talents they made some of the finest photographic portraits that the medium has thus far managed.”
— John Szarkowski, Looking at Photographs: 100 Pictures from the Collection of the Museum of Modern Art

“…Hill and Adamson created a distinctive photographic style, thus demonstrating that in expert hands the process could achieve perfection. Unlike other artists, they did not see themselves as social observers, restricting themselves to a picturesque approach, often agreed in advance.”
— Michael Frizot, A New History of Photography

“Hill took up photography (with the assistance of the young chemist Robert Adamson) as a sketching medium, in order to produce likenesses of 470 Scottish clerics, which he would incorporate in a monstrous historical painting commemorating the founding of the Free Church of Scotland.”
— John Szarkowski, Looking at Photographs: 100 Pictures from the Collection of the Museum of Modern Art

“Talbot’s technique was a two-step system: The picture exposed in the camera formed a negative image (black for white, and vice versa) on a transparent paper base; this negative image was then used as a filter through which a second piece of sensitized paper was exposed to the light, thus reversing the tonal values.”
— John Szarkowski, Looking at Photographs: 100 Pictures from the Collection of the Museum of Modern Art

“The calotype image was diffused slightly by the texture of the paper through which it was printed and consequently was less sharply detailed than the daguerreotype. But what Hill had learned from the great dead painters allowed him to compose his pictures broadly and simply, and turn the limitations of the system to his advantage.”
— John Szarkowski, Looking at Photographs: 100 Pictures from the Collection of the Museum of Modern Art

Hill (1802 – 1870) and Adamson (1821 – 1848)

Robert Adamson, was a Scottish pioneer photographer. Adamson was born in St. Andrews, he was hired in 1843 by David Octavius Hill (1802-1870), a painter of romantic Scottish landscapes.

He was commissioned to make a group portrait of the 470 clergymen who founded the Free Church of Scotland. Hill required calotypes from which he would paint. Distinguished persons from many fields came to be photographed by the partners. Together they made more than 1,000 portraits and numerous views of Edinburgh between 1843 and 1848, until Adamson died at the age of 26. Hill returned to painting and the partners’ great work was not rediscovered until 1872.

The Scottish painter and arts activist David Octavius Hill  collaborated with the engineer and photographer Robert Adamson between 1843 and 1847 to pioneer many aspects of photography in Scotland.

 Photograph from the frontispiece
of an album dated 1848, showing
D O Hill sketching in Greyfriars
Kirkyard, watched by the Misses
Morris. Other tableaux in the
same setting included The Artist
and The Gravedigger

David Octavius Hill was born in 1802 in Perth. His father, a bookseller and publisher, helped to re-establish Perth Academy and David was educated there as were his brothers. When his older brother Alexander joined the publishers Blackwood’s in Edinburgh, David went there to study at the School of Design. He learnt lithography and produced Sketches of Scenery in Perthshire which was published as an album of views. His landscape paintings were shown in the Institution for the Promotion of the Fine Arts in Scotland, and he was among the artists dissatisfied with the Institution who established a separate Scottish Academy in 1829 with the assistance of his close friend Henry Cockburn.

A year later Hill took on unpaid secretarial duties. He sought commissions in book illustration, with four sketches being used to illustrate The Glasgow and Garnkirk Railway Prospectus in 1832, and went on to provide illustrations for editions of Walter Scott and Robert Burns. In 1836 the Royal Scottish Academy began to pay him a salary as secretary, and with this security he married his fiancée Ann Macdonald in the following year, but she was not strong and after the birth of their daughter she became an invalid. He continued to produce illustrations and to paint landscapes on commission.

Free Church of Scotland

Clergymen who had been at the
assembly, photographed at
Dumbarton Presbytery in 1845
as the basis for their portraits
in the top left row of the painting.

Hill was present at the Disruption Assembly in 1843 when over 450 ministers walked out of the Church of Scotland assembly and down to another assembly hall to found the Free Church of Scotland. He decided to record the dramatic scene with the encouragement of his friend Lord Cockburn and another spectator, the physicist Sir David Brewster who suggested using the new invention, photography, to get likenesses of all the ministers present. Brewster was himself experimenting with this technology which only dated back to 1839, and he introduced Hill to another enthusiast, Robert Adamson. Hill and Adamson took a series of photographs of those who had been present and of the setting. The 5 foot x 11 foot 4 inches (1.53m x 3.45m) painting was eventually completed in 1866.

 The Disruption of 1843 was painted by Hill.

Photography studio

Their collaboration, with Hill providing skill in composition and lighting, and Adamson considerable sensitivity and dexterity in handling the camera, proved extremely successful, and they soon broadened their subject matter. Adamson’s studio, "Rock House", on Calton Hill in Edinburgh became the centre of their photographic experiments. Using the Calotype process, they produced a wide range of portraits depicting well-known Scottish luminaries of the time, including Hugh Miller, both in the studio and in outdoors settings, often amongst the elaborate tombs in Greyfriars Kirkyard.

Fishwives in St Andrews
bait their lines.

They photographed local and Fife landscapes and urban scenes, including images of the Scott Monument under construction in Edinburgh. As well as the great and the good, they photographed ordinary working folk, particularly the fishermen of Newhaven, and the fishwives who carried the fish in creels the 3 miles (5 km) uphill to the city of Edinburgh to sell them round the doors, with their cry of "Caller herrin" (fresh herring). They produced several groundbreaking "action" photographs of soldiers and – perhaps their most famous photograph – two priests walking side by side.

Newhaven fishergirls
pose with a creel.

Their partnership produced around 3000 prints, but was cut short after only four years due to the ill health and untimely death of Adamson in 1848. The calotypes faded under sunlight, so had to be kept in albums, and though Hill continued the studio for some months, he became less active and abandoned the studio, though he continued to sell prints of the photographs and to use them as an aid for composing paintings. In 1862 he remarried, to the sculptress Amelia Paton, and around that time took up photography again, but the results were more static and less successful than his collaboration with Adamson. He was badly affected by the death of his daughter and his work slowed. In 1866 he finished the Disruption picture which received wide acclaim, though many of the participants had died by then. The photographer F.C. Annan produced fine reduced facsimiles of the painting for sale throughout the Free Church, and a group of subscribers raised £1,200 to purchase the painting for the church. In 1869 illness forced him to give up his post as secretary to the R.S.A., and he died in May 1870.

Background and biographical information is from Wikipedia articles on:

David Octavius Hill that can be found at…
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Octavius_Hill

Robert Adamson that can be found at…
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Adamson_%28photographer%29

Also see…

Masters of Photography: Hill and Adamson…
http://www.masters-of-photography.com/H/hill-adamson/hill-a.html

by Gerald Boerner

“Gentlemen, we have just kicked a rabid dog.”
— Isoroku Yamamoto

“I can run wild for six months … after that, I have no expectation of success…”
— Isoroku Yamamoto

“The fate of the Empire rests on this enterprise every man must devote himself totally to the task in hand.”
— Isoroku Yamamoto

“I fear all we have done is to awaken a sleeping giant and fill him with a terrible resolve.”
— Isoroku Yamamoto

“A gigantic fleet… has massed in Pearl Harbor. This fleet will be utterly crushed with one blow at the very beginning of hostilities…Heaven will bear witness to the righteousness of our struggle.”
— Rear Admiral Ito

“Anytime you look at the history of Japanese Americans and you look at all the things that have impacted our lives, there is nothing that comes anywhere close to the bombing of Pearl Harbor. That’s the watermark of our whole existence.”
— John Tateishi, president of the Japanese American Citizens League

“A military man can scarcely pride himself on having ‘smitten a sleeping enemy’; it is more a matter of shame, simply, for the one smitten. I would rather you made your appraisal after seeing what the enemy does, since it is certain that, angered and outraged, he will soon launch a determined counterattack.”
— Isoroku Yamamoto

Note:
This is the second of a seven-part series on the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, in 1941. December 7th became the “date that will live in infamy” in the minds of all Americans. We hope that you will enjoy and learn from these postings… GLB

Pearl Harbor: The Japanese Preparation for War

On February 3, 1940, Yamamoto briefed Captain Kanji Ogawa of Naval Intelligence on the potential attack plan, asking him to start intelligence gathering on Pearl Harbor. Ogawa already had spies in Hawaii, including Japanese Consular officials with an intelligence remit, and he arranged for help from a German already living in Hawaii who was an Abwehr agent. None had been providing much militarily useful information. He planned to add 29-year-old Ensign Takeo Yoshikawa. By the spring of 1941, Yamamoto officially requested additional Hawaiian intelligence, and Yoshikawa boarded the liner Nitta-maru at Yokohama. He had grown his hair longer than military length, and assumed the cover name Tadashi Morimura.

 Ensign Takeo Yoshikawa,
a spy in Pearl Harbor
for Imperial Japan.

Yoshikawa began gathering intelligence in earnest by taking auto trips around the main islands, and toured Oahu in a small plane, posing as a tourist. He visited Pearl Harbor frequently, sketching the harbor and location of ships from the crest of a hill. Once, he gained access to Hickam Field in a taxi, memorizing the number of visible planes, pilots, hangars, barracks and soldiers. He was also able to discover that Sunday was the day of the week on which the largest number of ships were likely to be in harbor, that PBY patrol planes went out every morning and evening, and that there was an antisubmarine net in the mouth of the harbor. Information was returned to Japan in coded form in Consular communications, and by direct delivery to intelligence officers aboard Japanese ships calling at Hawaii by consulate staff.

In June 1941, German and Italian consulates were closed, and there were suggestions Japan’s should be closed, as well. They were not, because they continued to provide valuable information (via MAGIC) and neither President Roosevelt nor Secretary Hull wanted trouble in the Pacific. Had they been closed, however, it is possible Naval General Staff, which had opposed the attack from the outset, would have called it off, since up-to-date information on the location of the Pacific Fleet, on which Yamamoto’s plan depended, was no longer available

Planning

Expecting war, and seeing an opportunity in the forward basing of the US Pacific Fleet at Hawaii, the Japanese began planning in early 1941 for an attack on Pearl Harbor. For the next several months, planning, and organizing a simultaneous attack on Pearl Harbor and invasion of British and Dutch colonies to the South occupied much of the Japanese Navy’s time and attention. The Pearl Harbor attack planning arose out of the Japanese expectation the U.S. would be inevitably drawn into the war after a Japanese attack against Malaya and Singapore.

  Commander-in-Chief of the
Combined Fleet Fleet
Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto

The intent of a preemptive strike on Pearl Harbor was to neutralize American naval power in the Pacific, thus removing it from influencing operations against American, British, and Dutch colonies to the south. Successful attacks on colonies were judged to depend on successfully dealing with the American Pacific Fleet. Planning had long anticipated that a battle between the two Fleets would happen in Japanese home waters after the US Fleet traveled across the Pacific, under attack by submarines and other forces all the way. The US Fleet would be defeated in a climactic battle, just as had the Russian Fleet in 1905. A surprise attack posed a twofold difficulty compared to long standing expectations. First, the US Pacific Fleet was a formidable force, and would not be easy to defeat or to surprise. Second, for aerial attack, Pearl Harbor’s shallow waters made using conventional air-dropped torpedoes ineffective. On the other hand, Hawaii’s isolation meant a successful surprise attack could not be blocked or quickly countered by forces from the continental U.S.

Several Japanese naval officers had been impressed by the British Operation Judgement, in which 21 obsolete Fairey Swordfish disabled half the Regia Marina. Admiral Yamamoto even dispatched a delegation to Italy, which concluded a larger and better-supported version of Cunningham’s strike could force the U.S. Pacific Fleet to retreat to bases in California, thus giving Japan the time necessary to establish a "barrier" defense to protect Japanese control of the Dutch East Indies. The delegation returned to Japan with information about the shallow-running torpedoes Cunningham’s engineers had devised.

Japanese strategists were undoubtedly influenced by Admiral Togo’s surprise attack on the Russian Pacific Fleet at Port Arthur in 1905, and may have been influenced by U.S. Admiral Harry Yarnell’s performance in the 1932 joint Army-Navy exercises, which simulated an invasion of Hawaii. Yarnell, as commander of the attacking force, placed his carriers northwest of Oahu and simulated an air attack. The exercise’s umpires noted Yarnell’s aircraft were able to inflict serious "damage" on the defenders, who for 24 hours after the attack were unable to locate his force.

Yamamoto’s emphasis on destroying the American battleships was in keeping with the Mahanian doctrine shared by all major navies during this period, including the U.S. Navy and Royal Navy.

In a letter dated January 7, 1941 Yamamoto finally delivered a rough outline of his plan to Koshiro Oikawa, then Navy Minister, from whom he also requested to be made Commander in Chief of the air fleet to attack Pearl Harbor.

 Planner Commander Minoru Genda
stressed surprise would be critical

A few weeks later, in yet another letter, this time directed at Takijiro Onishi—chief of staff of the Eleventh Air Fleet—Yamamoto requested Onishi study the technical feasibility of an attack against the American base. After consulting first with Kosei Maeda, an expert on aerial torpedo warfare, and being told the harbor’s shallow waters rendered such an attack almost impossible, Onsihi summoned Commander Minoru Genda. After studying the original proposal put forth by Yamamoto, Genda agreed: "the plan is difficult but not impossible". During the following weeks, Genda expanded Yamamoto’s original plan, highlighting the importance of it being carried out early in the morning and in total secrecy, employing an aircraft carrier force and several different types of bombing.

Japanese military planners, including Yamamoto, initially gave some thought to trying to seize the Hawaiian Islands, which would provide Japan with a strategic base in the central Pacific and deny American forces any bases beyond the coast of North America. Although this proposal gained some support, it was soon dismissed for several reasons.

• Japan’s ground forces were already fully committed not only to the Second Sino-Japanese War but also for offensives in Southeast Asia that were planned to occur immediately after the Pearl Harbor attack.
• The Japanese Imperial Army (JIA), which preferred to focus on targets to the south (including a plan to seize part or all of Australia), refused to supply any troops.
• Several senior officers of the Combined Fleet, most notably Fleet Admiral Osami Nagano (永野修身), felt that an invasion of Hawaii was too risky.

With an invasion ruled out, it was agreed that a massive carrier-based airstrike to cripple the American Pacific Fleet would be sufficient, even though Hawaii, with its strategic location in the Central Pacific, would continue to serve as a critical base from which the United States could extent its military power into Eastern Asia. Once again, the confidence of Japanese leaders that the conflict would be over quickly and that the United States would accept Japanese control of Asia rather than fight a long bloody war overrode this concern.

By April 1941, the Pearl Harbor plan became known as Operation Z, after the famous Z signal given by Admiral Tōgō at Tsushima. Over the summer, pilots trained in earnest near Kagoshima City on the Japanese island of Kyūshū. Genda had chosen it because its geography and infrastructure presented most of the same problems bombers would face at Pearl Harbor. In training, each crew flew over the 5000-foot (1500 m) mountain behind Kagoshima, dove down into the city, dodging buildings and smokestacks before dropping to an altitude of 25 feet (7 m) at the piers. Bombardiers released torpedoes at a breakwater some 300 yards (270 m) away.

Yet even skimming the water did not solve the problem of torpedoes bottoming in the shallow waters of Pearl Harbor. Japanese weapons engineers created and tested modifications allowing successful shallow water drops. The effort resulted in a heavily modified version of the Type 91 torpedo which inflicted most of the ship damage during the attack. Japanese weapons technicians also produced special armor-piercing bombs by fitting fins and release shackles to 14 and 16 inch (356 and 406 mm) naval shells. These were able to penetrate the lightly armored decks of the old battleships.

Background and biographical information is from Wikipedia articles on:

Pearl Harbor Day that can be found at…
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_Harbor_Day

Events Leading to Pearl Harbor Attack that can be found at…
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Events_leading_to_the_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor

by Gerald Boerner

“The ultimate camping trip was the Lewis and Clark expedition.”
— Dave Barry

“We wanted a unique perspective on Lewis and Clark.”
— Marshall Bloom

“We know that based on the Lewis and Clark costs and our capital costs, this probably isn’t the last rate increase in the next 10 years.”
— Kevin Smith

“Lewis and Clark’s expedition is as great a story as you could ever hope to tell, and like so many people, Brad and I have both been drawn to it for years.”
— Edward Norton

“We’re in the neighborhood. This is sort of a Lewis and Clark space expedition: We’re in the foothills, and we’ll soon be getting to the mountains, in our view.”
— Frank McDonald

“Our cook-off runs in conjunction with our Lewis & Clark Festival. When they entered South Dakota, this is where they feasted on their first bison.”
— Diane Norton

“Lewis and Clark’s expedition is as great a story as you could ever hope to tell, and like so many people, Brad and I have both been drawn to it for years, … We both always agreed that compressing that story into a feature-length film ruined the spirit of it … so we sat down and said, ‘How can we really do this justice?”
— Edward Norton

“Every day is like a brand new mission to us, because the rovers move. And so we are in different locations, there is different terrain, there is different geology, there is something new to explore. We’re like Lewis and Clark going upriver and every day there’s new phenomena to see.”
— John Callas

“It’s definitely a friendly rivalry. He’s a great quarterback. I’m happy when he makes a great play. We played together in Little Guy football. We were both offensive and defensive linemen. We didn’t play quarterback until the eighth grade. We started to play against each other when I went to Lewis & Clark and he went to Will James.”
— Mark Desin

The Lewis and Clark Explorations

The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–1806) was the first overland expedition undertaken by the United States to the Pacific coast and back. The  was to gain an accurate sense of the resources being exchanged in the Louisiana Purchase. The expedition laid much of the groundwork for the Westward Expansion of the United States.

Louisiana Purchase and a western expedition

The Louisiana Purchase in 1803 sparked interest in expansion to the west coast. The United States did not know precisely what it was buying and France was unsure of how much land it was actually selling. A few weeks after the purchase, President Thomas Jefferson, an advocate of western expansion, had Congress appropriate $2,500 for an expedition. In a message to Congress, Jefferson wrote:

“The river Missouri, and Indians inhabiting it, are not as well known as rendered desirable by their connection with the Mississippi, and consequently with us…. An intelligent officer, with ten or twelve chosen men … might explore the whole line, even to the Western Ocean…”

Reconstruction of Camp Dubois,
Lewis and Clark State Historic Site,
Illinois

Thomas Jefferson had long thought about such an expedition, but was concerned about the danger. While in France from 1785–1789, he had heard of numerous plans to better explore the Pacific Northwest. In 1785, Jefferson learned that King Louis XVI of France planned to send a mission there, reportedly as a mere scientific expedition. Jefferson found that doubtful, and evidence provided by John Paul Jones confirmed these doubts. In either event, the mission was destroyed by bad weather after leaving Botany Bay in 1788. In 1786 John Ledyard, who had sailed with Captain James Cook to the Pacific Northwest, told Jefferson that he planned to walk across Siberia, ride a Russian fur-trade vessel to cross the ocean, and then walk all the way to the American capital. Since Ledyard was an American, Jefferson hoped he would succeed. Ledyard had made it as far as Siberia when Empress Catherine the Great had him arrested and deported back to Poland.

The American expedition to the Pacific northwest was intended to study the Indian tribes, botany, geology, Western terrain and wildlife in the region, as well as evaluate the potential interference of British and French Canadian hunters and trappers who were already well established in the area.

Lewis and Clark on the
Lower Columbia
by C.M. Russell

Jefferson selected U.S. Army Captain Meriwether Lewis, his aide and personal friend, to lead the expedition, afterwards known as the Corps of Discovery. In a letter dated June 20, 1803, Jefferson wrote to Lewis

The object of your mission is to explore the Missouri river, and such principal stream of it as by its course and communication with the waters of the Pacific Ocean whether the Columbia, Oregon, Colorado or any other river may offer the most direct and practicable water communication across this continent for the purposes of commerce.

Lewis selected William Clark as his partner. Because of bureaucratic delays in the U.S. Army, Clark officially only held the rank of Second Lieutenant at the time, but Lewis concealed this from the men and shared the leadership of the expedition, always referring to Clark as “Captain”.

In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson commissioned the Corps of Discovery as a scientific expedition to explore the newly acquired Louisiana Purchase. The expedition’s goal as stated by President Jefferson was “to explore the Missouri River and such principal stream of it as by its course and communication with the waters of the Pacific Ocean, whether the Columbia, Oregon, Colorado or any other river that may offer the most direct and practicable water communication across this continent for the purpose of commerce”. In addition, the expedition was to learn more about the Northwest’s natural resources, inhabitants, and possibilities for settlement. Although Lewis and Clark were not the first explorers to travel west and they did not achieve their primary objective of finding a waterway across North America, the significance of the expedition can be measured in other ways.

Geography and mapping

One of the most significant contributions of the Lewis and Clark Expedition was a better perception of the geography of the Northwest and the production of the first accurate maps of the area. During the journey, Lewis and Clark prepared approximately 140 maps. Author Stephen Ambrose states that the expedition “filled in the main outlines of the previously blank map of the northwestern United States“. Before the expedition, most Americans were not aware of the size and extent of the Rocky Mountains. They believed that the Rocky Mountains could be crossed in a single day and that the Rockies separated the source of the Missouri River from a great “River of the West” that would empty into the Pacific Ocean. However, the expedition found that the supposed single day of traveling was instead an 11 day ordeal that nearly cost them their lives and that an easy water route across the continent did not exist.

Natural resources

A second achievement of the expedition was a better understanding of the Northwest’s natural resources. During the journey, the expedition documented over 100 species of animals and approximately 176 plants. The expedition even sent a caged prairie dog, which had never been seen before in the East, to President Jefferson as a gift. Over the two year journey, the expedition had made more discoveries of landscapes, rivers, native cultures, zoology, and botany of North America than any scientific expedition.

Native American relations

Another achievement of the Lewis and Clark Expedition was that it established friendly relations with some of the Native Americans. Without the help of the Native Americans, the expedition would have starved to death or become hopelessly lost in the Rocky Mountains. The expedition was especially indebted to a Shoshone woman named Sacagawea, who served as a guide and interpreter. The sight of a woman and her infant son would have been a reassuring sight to Native Americans who might have mistaken the armed explorers as a group on a warlike mission. For the most part, encounters between the three dozen Indian tribes and the expedition were successful. Author James Ronda states “Lewis and Clark matter today because they act as a benchmark by which we can measure change and continuity in everything from the environment to relations between peoples”.

Lewis and Clark may not have found the elusive Northwest Passage and were not the first to explore the west, but as Robert Archibald states, “they were the first United States citizens to have described the place officially”. The fact that they were a scientific expedition was extremely important, especially during the Age of Enlightenment. The new knowledge they obtained about the Northwest’s geography, natural resources, and native inhabitants sparked American interest in the west, and strengthened the nation’s claim to the area.

Ella Elizabeth Clark has written,

“It was the Missouri River, not the young Indian mother, that served as the Expedition’s “principal guide.” Sacagawea had seen only a small part of the area explored and not since her childhood….Though she was not the guide for the Expedition, she was important to them as an interpreter and in other ways. Two days into the journey, Sacagawea collected edible roots hidden by small animals in piles of driftwood. The roots were a welcome addition to meat….Captain Lewis ended his report of the mishap with praise of Sacagawea: ‘the Indian woman, to whom I ascribe equal fortitude and resolution with any person on board at the time of the accident, caught, and preserved most of the light articles [that] were washed overboard.’“

Other Events on this Day

• In 1805…
  Lewis and Clark, having reached the Pacific coast, look for a spot to make winter camp. 1818 .
• In 1818…
  Illinois became the twenty-first state.
• In 1828…
  Andrew Jackson is elected the seventh U.S. president.
• In 1947…
  A Streetcar Name Desire by Tennessee Williams opens on Broadway.
• In 1973…
  Pioneer 10 obtains the first close-up images of Jupiter.

Dates and events based on:

William J. Bennett and John Cribb, (2008) The American Patriot’s Almanac Daily Readings on America. (Kindle Edition)

Background information is from Wikipedia articles on:

Lewis and Clark Expedition that can be found at…
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition