Prof. Boerner's Explorations

by Gerald Boerner

  

“Generally speaking, I’m not one to adovcate photographic rules, but I do think it helps to take off the lens cap.”
— Catherine Jo Morgan

“The whole thrust in my life right now is spinning my assignments around and making them work in a more personal way (…) I wanted to go back and do the original thing: one camera, one lens, one film. You really have to put yourself in a position of danger to be creative.”
— David Alan Harvey

“Minolta makes the best bodies, Nikon makes the best lenses, Canon makes the best compromise.”
— Author Unknown

“Of what use are lens and light to those who lack in mind and sight?”
— Author Unknown

“You didn’t compromise on your camera. You shouldn’t on your lenses.”
— Author Unknown

“It’s not the size of the lens. It’s how you use it.”
— GroovaciousK

“I am always surprised when I see several cameras, a gaggle of lenses, filters, meters, et cetera, rattling around in a soft bag with a complement of refuse and dust. Sometimes the professional is the worst offender!”
— Ansel Adams

  

Using Filters: Part 3 — Special-Purpose Filters

There are several types of special-purpose filters that are used in photography. These typically produce special effects in the image (film or digital) that cannot be replicated fully with digital image editing tools. These filters include both diffusion and diffraction filters. Close-up filters are also included in this category although they may also considered to be lenses as well.

“But don’t make the mistake of thinking that photography will always be a relaxed process. The photographer who always sees himself as calm & sedate, as nothing but a slow absorber of a place, will more than often miss the meaning which the place is trying to offer him. Rush to get it if you have to, moving as quickly as nature often does. The quick movement, the sudden noticing of something perfect but passing in it’s perfection – that too must be part of the photographers’ vocabulary, which goes far beyond the boxes of lenses and filters. It is a quality of mind. The shutter in the camera will move in tiny fractions of a second. You must not lag behind.. . . it is that instantaneous, disappearing nature of the beautiful moment that of course makes it all the more precious. To capture that is something only photography can do and is above all – even speaking technically and chemically – a response to what is there in front of you. The light is going, it’s beauty is there for no more than a few seconds, it is fading before your eyes, and you cannot ignore it.”
— Charlie Waite

Diffraction (Cross Screen) Filters

A diffraction/cross screen filter, also known as a star filter, creates a star pattern, in which lines radiate outward from bright objects. The star pattern is generated by a very fine diffraction grating embedded in the filter, or sometimes by the use of prisms in the filter. The number of stars varies by the construction of the filter, as does the number of points each star has.Colors seen in a spider web are partially due to diffraction,
according to some analyses

Diffraction is normally taken to refer to various phenomena which occur when a wave encounters an obstacle. It is described as the apparent bending of waves around small obstacles and the spreading out of waves past small openings. Similar effects are observed when light waves travel through a medium with a varying refractive index or a sound wave through one with varying acoustic impedance. Diffraction occurs with all waves, including sound waves, water waves, and electromagnetic waves such as visible light, x-rays and radio waves. As physical objects have wave-like properties (at the atomic level), diffraction also occurs with matter and can be studied according to the principles of quantum mechanics.

The intensity pattern formed on
a screen by diffraction from a
square aperture

While diffraction occurs whenever propagating waves encounter such changes, its effects are generally most pronounced for waves where the wavelength is on the order of the size of the diffracting objects. If the obstructing object provides multiple, closely-spaced openings, a complex pattern of varying intensity can result. This is due to the superposition, or interference, of different parts of a wave that traveled to the observer by different paths (see diffraction grating).

The formalism of diffraction can also describe the way in which waves of finite extent propagate in free space. For example, the expanding profile of a laser beam, the beam shape of a radar antenna and the field of view of an ultrasonic transducer are all explained by diffraction theory.

Diffusion Filters

A diffusion filter (also called a softening filter) softens subjects and generates a dreamy haze (see photon diffusion). This is most often used for portraits. It also has the effect of reducing contrast, and the filters are designed, labeled, sold, and used for that purpose too. There are many ways of accomplishing this effect, and thus filters from different manufacturers vary significantly. The two primary approaches are to use some form of grid or netting in the filter, or to use something which is transparent but not optically sharp.

An example of a photograph
of a person taken using a
diffusion filter.

Silk sheets can also be used in this manner, and in fact were until the invention of translucent plastics. "Opal" is a common translucent or opalescent diffusion.

Both effects can be achieved in software, which can in principle provide a very precise degree of control of the level of effect, however the "look" may be noticeably different. If there is too much contrast in a scene, the dynamic range of the digital image sensor or film may be exceeded, which post-processing cannot compensate for, so contrast reduction at the time of image capture may be called for.

In photography, soft focus is a lens flaw, in which the lens forms images that are blurred due to spherical aberration. A soft focus lens deliberately introduces spherical aberration in order to give the appearance of blurring the image while retaining sharp edges; it is not the same as an out-of-focus image, and the effect cannot be achieved simply by defocusing a sharp lens. Soft focus is also the name of the style of photograph produced by such a lens.

An image of a bottle with a heavy soft focus effect.

An image of the same bottle, but with no
soft focus effect at all.

Zeiss manufactures a widely noted Softar diffusion filter which is made of many tiny globs of acrylic deposited on one surface which act as microlenses to diffuse the light. In some versions the globs are on the inside of the filter (facing the photographer) while on others they face outwards (towards the subject). In various versions the globs vary in number and diameter, from approximately 97 to 150 globs each 1 mm to 3 mm wide.

Homebrew approaches to transparent diffusion filters are generally based on modifying a clear or UV filter by placing various materials on it; the most popular choices are petroleum jelly, optical cement, and nail polish. Transparent filters are more commonly used for the "dreamy" or "misty" effect than for contrast reduction.

Various widths, colors (often black or white), and grid shapes (typically diamonds or squares) and spacings of netting, usually made from nylon, are used to provide diffusion effects. These are used both for the "dreamy" look and for contrast reduction. The homebrew approach to this sort of effect is generally to stretch a piece of pantyhose material in front of the lens.

Close-up Lenses

While these are not technically filters but accessory lenses, they are sold by filter manufacturers as part of their product lines, using the same holders and attachment systems. A close-up lens is a single or two-element converging lens used for close-up and macro photography, and works in the same way as spectacles used for reading. The insertion of a converging lens in front of the taking lens reduces the focal length of the combination.

Close-up lenses are usually specified by their optical power, the reciprocal of the focal length in meters. Several close-up lenses may be used in combination; the optical power of the combination is the sum of the optical powers of the component lenses; a set of lenses of +1, +2, and +4 diopters can be combined to provide a range from +1 to +7 in steps of 1.

Close-up lenses (also called supplementary lenses) screw into the filter mount on the front of the lens that is fitted to your camera, and bring the focusing range of the camera’s lens closer to the camera. The power of close-up lenses is normally specified in dioptres; higher numbers are more powerful. With the camera’s lens focused on infinity and a +1 dioptre close-up lens fitted, the maximum focusing distance becomes 1 metre, with a +2 it becomes 0.5 metres, and with a +4 it becomes 0.25 metres.

Close-up lenses for 35 mm cameras are commonly available with strengths of +1, +2, +3 and +4, but intermediate and higher strengths are also available. The lenses of digital cameras have shorter focal lengths than those for 35 mm cameras, and so they need stronger close-up lenses such as +7 and +10; these are often of too small a diameter and insufficient quality to be used on 35 mm cameras.

Close-up lenses are not usually corrected for optical aberrations, so you need to stop down the camera lens to at least f/8. The effects on image quality are greater with camera lenses of longer focal length, so better quality (and much more expensive) close-up lenses are needed for telephoto lenses and for roll-film cameras. Two-element achromatic close-up lenses are available: Nikon produce +1.5 and +2.9, Canon produce +2 and +4, and Hoya produce +10. Specially-matched close-up lenses are available for some macro lenses and medical lenses.

You can use two close-up lenses at a time, with the stronger one closer to the camera lens. The effect is additive, so a combination of a +1 and a +2 has the same power as a +3 close-up lens. Combining close-up lenses makes the drop in quality worse.

Close-up lenses are cheap, easy to use, cause no exposure problems, and do not darken the viewfinder, but they cannot match the quality of a macro lens. They are readily available, and are made by camera manufacturers and by independent companies.

Note:
A special type of filter is the split diopter mentioned in the Wikipedia reference has just a semicircular half of a close-up lens in a normal filter holder. It can be used to photograph a close object and a much more distant background, with everything in sharp focus; with any non-split lens the depth of field would be far too shallow. These are not generally employed in most photography today, except by selected professionals.

   

Background and biographical information is from Wikipedia articles on:

Photographic Filters that can be found at…
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_filter

Diffraction Filters that can be found at…
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction

Diffusion Filters that can be found at…
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion_filter

Soft Focus that can be found at…
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_focus

Also see…

Close-up Lenses…
http://www.alanwood.net/photography/close-up-lenses.html

PhotoQuotes.com on Photographic Filters…
http://www.photoquotes.com/searchquotes.aspx?searchtext=filters

by Gerald Boerner

  

“To me every hour of the light and dark is a miracle,
Every cubic inch of space is a miracle.”
— Walt Whitman

“Birds sing after a storm; why shouldn’t people feel as free to delight in whatever remains to them?”
— Rose F. Kennedy

“As long as Hanukkah is studied and remembered, Jews will not surrender to the night. The proper response, as Hanukkah teaches, is not to curse the darkness but to light a candle.”
— Irving Greenberg

“The lights of the Hanukkah menorah that we kindle in our homes are a reminder both of the Menorah in the Temple in Jerusalem and the light that shines brightly within each one of us. For as it says in Proverbs 20:27 — The candle of God is the soul of man.”
— Libi Astair

“Just as Hanukkah candles are lighted one by one from a single flame, so the tale of the miracle is passed from one man to another, from one house to another, and to the whole House of Israel throughout the generations.”
— Judah L. Magnes

“They celebrated it for eight days with gladness like Sukkot and recalled how a little while before, during Sukkot, they had been wandering in the mountains and caverns like wild animals.So carrying lulavs …they offered hymns of praise to God who had brought to pass the purification of His own place.”
— II Maccabees 10:6-7

“They celebrated it for eight days with gladness like Sukkot and recalled how a little while before, during Sukkot, they had been wandering in the mountains and caverns like wild animals.So carrying lulavs …they offered hymns of praise to God who had brought to pass the purification of His own place.”
— Charles Reznikoff

“In the old days, it was not called the Holiday Season; the Christians called it ‘Christmas’ and went to church; the Jews called it ‘Hanukkah’ and went to synagogue; the atheists went to parties and drank. People passing each other on the street would say ‘Merry Christmas!’ or ‘Happy Hanukkah!’ or (to the atheists) ‘Look out for the wall!’ ”
— Dave Barry

“At this time of year, when the sun is most hidden, the holiday of Hanukkah celebrates the rays of hope and light. Indeed, the physical darkness of this time of year can be a metaphor for the darkness that often envelopes us at times of illness and loss of a loved one, when the world sometimes feels dark and cold. At such times, we yearn for the sun, and the light and warmth that it provides. Often, it is through simple and unrecognized miracles that we are able to feel the warmth of hope and light.”
— Rabbi Rafael Goldstein

  

Part 2 of 2: This posting continues our examination of the Jewish celebration of Hanukkah, the “Festival of Light”.

  

Hanukkah: Part 2 The Traditions

Hanukkah, also known as the Festival of Lights, is an eight-day Jewish holiday commemorating the rededication of the Holy Temple in Jerusalem at the time of the Maccabean Revolt of the 2nd century BCE. Hanukkah is observed for eight nights, starting on the 25th day of Kislev according to the Hebrew calendar, which may occur as early as late November to as late as late December in the Gregorian calendar.

The festival is observed by the kindling of the lights of a special candelabrum, the nine-branched Menorah or Hanukiah, one additional light on each night of the holiday, progressing to eight on the final night. An extra light called a shamash (Hebrew: "guard" or "servant") is also lit each night for the purpose of lighting the others, and is given a distinct location, usually above or below the rest. The "shamash" symbolically supplies light that may be used for some secular purpose.

In the United States, Hanukkah is considered as one of several primary holidays within the Christmas and holiday season.

Hanukkah rituals

Hanukkah is celebrated by a series of rituals that are performed every day throughout the 8-day holiday. Some are family-based and others are communal. There are special additions to the daily prayer service, and a section is added to the blessing after meals. Hanukkah is not a "Sabbath-like" holiday, and there is no obligation to refrain from activities that are forbidden on the Sabbath, as specified in the Shulkhan Arukh. People go to work as usual, but may leave early in order to be home to kindle the lights at nightfall. There is no religious reason for schools to be closed, although, in Israel, schools close from the second day for the whole week of Hanukkah. Many families exchange gifts each night, and fried foods are eaten.

Kindling the Hanukkah lights

Grand Rabbi Aaron Horowitz,
the Biala Rebbe of America,
lights the menorah on the
seventh night of Hanukkah.

The primary ritual, according to Jewish law and custom, is to light a single light each night for eight nights. As a universally practiced "beautification" of the mitzvah, the number of lights lit is increased by one each night. An extra light called a shamash, meaning guard or servant is also lit each night, and is given a distinct location, usually higher or lower than the others. The purpose of the extra light is to adhere to the prohibition, specified in the Talmud (Tracate Shabbat 21b–23a), against using the Hanukkah lights for anything other than publicizing and meditating on the Hanukkah story. This differs from Sabbath candles which are meant to be used for illumination. Hence, if one were to need extra illumination on Hanukkah, the shamash candle would be available and one would avoid using the prohibited lights. Some light the shamash candle first and then use it to light the others. So all together, including the shamash, two lights are lit on the first night, three on the second and so on, ending with nine on the last night, for a total of 44 (36, excluding the shamash).

The lights can be candles or oil lamps. Electric lights are sometimes used and are acceptable in places where open flame is not permitted, such as a hospital room. Most Jewish homes have a special candelabrum or oil lamp holder for Hanukkah, which holds eight lights plus the additional shamash light.

Bronze Pal-Bell oil-burning
Hanukkah menorah from Israel
circa 1948, by Maurice Ascalon.

The reason for the Hanukkah lights is not for the "lighting of the house within", but rather for the "illumination of the house without," so that passers-by should see it and be reminded of the holiday’s miracle. Accordingly lamps are set up at a prominent window or near the door leading to the street. It is customary amongst some Ashkenazim to have a separate menorah for each family member (customs vary), whereas most Sephardim light one for the whole household. Only when there was danger of antisemitic persecution were lamps supposed to be hidden from public view, as was the case in Persia under the rule of the Zoroastrians, or in parts of Europe before and during World War II. However, most Hasidic groups, light lamps near an inside doorway, not necessarily in public view. According to this tradition, the lamps are placed on the opposite side from the mezuzah, so that when one passes through the door he is surrounded by the holiness of mitzvoth.

Time of lighting

Hanukkah lights should burn for at least one half hour after it gets dark. The custom of the Vilna Gaon observed by many residents of Jerusalem as the custom of the city, is to light at sundown, although most Hassidim light later, even in Jerusalem. Many Hasidic Rebbes light much later, because they fulfil the obligation of publicizing the miracle by the presence of their Hasidim when they kindle the lights. Inexpensive small wax candles sold for Hanukkah burn for approximately half an hour, so on most days this requirement can be met by lighting the candles when it is dark outside. Friday night presents a problem, however. Since candles may not be lit on the Shabbat itself, the candles must be lit before sunset. However, they must remain lit until the regular time—thirty minutes after nightfall—and inexpensive Hanukkah candles do not burn long enough to meet the requirement. A simple solution is to use longer candles, or the traditional oil lamps. In keeping with the above-stated prohibition, the Hanukkah menorah is lit first, followed by the Shabbat candles which signify its onset.

Blessings over the candles

 Grand Rabbi Israel Abraham
Portugal of Skulen Hasidism
lighting Hanukkah lights

Typically three blessings (Brachot singular Brachah) are recited during this eight-day festival. On the first night of Hanukkah, Jews recite all three blessings; on all subsequent nights, they recite only the first two. The blessings are said before or after the candles are lit depending on tradition. On the first night of Hanukkah one light (candle, lamp, or electric) is lit on the right side of the Menorah, on the following night a second light is placed to the left of the first candle and so on, proceeding from right to left over the eight nights. On each night, the leftmost candle is lit first, and lighting proceeds from left to right.

Interaction with modernity and with other traditions

The classical rabbis downplayed the military and nationalistic dimensions of Hanukkah, and some even interpreted the emphasis upon the story of the miracle oil as a diversion away from the struggle with empires that had led to the disastrous downfall of Jerusalem to the Romans. With the advent of Zionism and the state of Israel, these themes were reconsidered. In modern Israel, the national and military aspects of Hanukkah became, once again, more dominant.

In North America especially, Hanukkah gained increased importance with many Jewish families in the latter half of the twentieth century, including large numbers of secular Jews, who wanted a Jewish alternative to the Christmas celebrations that often overlap with Hanukkah. Though it was traditional among Ashkenazi Jews to give "gelt" or money coins to children during Hanukkah, in many families this has changed into gifts in order to prevent Jewish children from feeling left out of the Christmas gift giving.

While Hanukkah traditionally speaking is a relatively minor Jewish holiday, as indicated by the lack of religious restrictions on work other than a few minutes after lighting the candles, in North America, Hanukkah has taken a place equal to Passover as a symbol of Jewish identity. Both the Israeli and North American versions of Hanukkah emphasize resistance, focusing on some combination of national liberation and religious freedom as the defining meaning of the holiday.

   

Background and biographical information is from Wikipedia articles on:

Hanukkah that can be found at…
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanukkah

by Gerald Boerner

  

“Experience teaches us to be most on our guard to protect liberty when the government’s purposes are beneficent.”
— Louis D. Brandeis

“George W. had a plan. He arranged to join the Air National Guard in Texas, which meant he would not be sent to Vietnam.”
— Peter Jennings

“American soldiers had to guard prisoners on the inside while receiving mortar and weapons fire from the outside. Guantanamo is distant from any battlefield, making it far more secure.”
— John Yoo

“As the Senator from Vermont was kind enough to note, I did have the experience of being commander in chief of our National Guard in Missouri for 8 years.”
— Kit Bond

“Guard units in the U.S. are suffering severe equipment shortages which will affect their ability to respond to emergencies in their home States, such as Katrina.”
— Ike Skelton

“Even though the National Guard and Army Reserve see combat today, it rankles me that people assume it was some kind of waltz in the park back then.”
— Larry David

“Be assured, fellow citizens, that in a democracy it is the laws that guard the person of the citizen and the constitution of the state, whereas the despot and the oligarch find their protection in suspicion and in armed guards.”
— Aeschines

“Conscious of my own weakness, I can only seek fervently the guidance of the Ruler of the Universe, and, relying on His all-powerful aid, do my best to restore Union and peace to a suffering people, and to establish and guard their liberties and rights.”
— George B. McClellan

The National Guard of the United States

The National Guard of the United States is a reserve military force composed of state National Guard militia members or units under federally recognized active or inactive armed force service for the United States. The National Guard of the United States is a joint reserve component of the United States Army and the United States Air Force and maintains two subcomponents: the Army National Guard of the United States for the Army and the Air Force’s Air National Guard of the United States.

Established under Title 10 and Title 32 of the U.S. Code, state National Guard serves as part of the first-line defense for the United States. The state National Guard is divided up into units stationed in each of the 50 states and U.S. territories and operates under their respective state governor or territorial adjutant general. The National Guard may be called up for active duty by state governors or territorial adjutant general to help respond to domestic emergencies and disasters, such as those caused by hurricanes, floods, and earthquakes.

With the consent of state governors, members or units of state National Guard may be appointed or deployed as federally recognized armed force members in active or inactive service. If so recognized, they become part of the National Guard of the United States.^[1] The National Guard of the United States units or members may be called up for federal active duty in times of Congressionally-sanctioned war or national emergency. State National Guard may also be called up for federal service, with the consent of state governors, to repel invasion or suppress rebellion. It can enforce federal laws if the United States or any of its states or territories are invaded or are in danger of invasion by a foreign nation, or if there is a rebellion or danger of a rebellion against the authority of the federal government.

However unlike the United States Army and other armed forces, the National Guard (under state status) cannot leave American soil. The National Guard can be mobilized if the President is unable with the regular armed forces to execute the laws of the United States. Because both state National Guard and the National Guard of the United States relatively go hand-in-hand, they are both usually referred to as just National Guard.

The National Guard of the United States is administered by the National Guard Bureau, which is a joint activity under the Department of Defense. The National Guard Bureau provides a communication channel for state National Guard to the Department of Defense. The National Guard Bureau also provides policies and requirements for training and funds for training for state Army National Guard and state Air National Guard units, the allocation of federal funds to the Army National Guard of the United States and the Air National Guard of the United States, as well as other administrative responsibilities prescribed under 10 U.S.C. § 10503. The National Guard Bureau is headed by the Chief of the National Guard Bureau (CNGB), who is a four-star general in the Army or Air Force.

The Militia Act of 1903 organized the various state militias into the present National Guard system. With the passage of the 1916 National Defense Act approximately one half of the United States Army’s available combat forces and approximately one third of its support organizations were National Guard units. The Air National Guard part of the United States Air Force was established in 1947.

Constitutional basis for the National Guard

The United States National Guard is authorized by the Constitution of the United States. As originally drafted, the Constitution limited the mustering of state militias: without the consent of Congress, states could not “keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace,…or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay.” (Article I, Section 10; Clause 3) Congress, however, had a duty to protect states from invasion and domestic violence (Article IV, Section 4).

National Guardsmen,
Penn Station,
New York City

State militias are not entirely independent, however, because they may be federalized. According to Article I, Section 8; Clause 15, the United States Congress is given the power to pass laws for “calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions.” Congress may appropriate funds to support state militias (clause 12), and may:

“provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress.” (clause 16)

The President of the United States is the commander-in-chief of the state militias “when called into the actual Service of the United States”. (Article II, Section 2).

National Guard units can be mobilized for active duty, during times of war or of national emergency declared by Congress, by the President or the Secretary of Defense to supplement regular armed forces. They can also be activated for service in their respective states upon declaration of a state of emergency by the governor of the state or territory in which they serve; in the case of Washington DC, the Commanding General. Unlike Army Reserve members, National Guard members cannot be mobilized individually, except through voluntary transfers and Temporary Duty Assignments (TDY). However, there has been a significant amount of individual activations to support ongoing military operations related to the Global War on Terrorism (beginning in 2001); the legality of this policy is a major issue within the National Guard.

The National Guard Bureau is in Arlington, Va., and is a joint activity of the Department of Defense to conduct all the administrative matters pertaining to the Army National Guard and the Air National Guard. The current chief of the National Guard Bureau is General Craig R. McKinley. The chief is the senior uniformed National Guard officer, in charge of developing all policies and advising the Secretaries and Chiefs of Staff of the Army and the Air Force on all National Guard issues. He is appointed by the President in his capacity as Commander in Chief.

History

Throughout the 19th century the regular Army was small, and the militia provided the majority of the troops during the Mexican-American War, the start of the American Civil War, and the Spanish-American War. In 1903, part of the militia was federalized and renamed the National Guard and organized as a Reserve force for the Army. In World War I, the National Guard made up 40 percent of the U.S. combat divisions in France. In World War II the National Guard made up 19 divisions. One hundred forty thousand Guardsmen were mobilized during the Korean War and over 63,000 for Operation Desert Storm. They have also participated in U.S. peacekeeping operations in Somalia, Haiti, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bosnia, and Kosovo as well as for natural disasters, strikes, riots and security for the Olympic Games when they have been in the States.

 A National Guardsman
in 1917.

The federally-controlled National Guard as we know it was officially created in 1916; however, the heritage of the National Guard traces back to English common law and the citizen militias of the British North American colonies. The claim that the National Guard is older than the nation itself, with over three and a half centuries of service, is based on the fact that the modern-day 101st Field Artillery Regiment, 101st Engineer Battalion and 181st Infantry Regiment of the Massachusetts Army National Guard are directly descended from Massachusetts Bay Colony regiments formed over 370 years ago.

On 13 December 1636, the General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony had ordered that the Colony’s scattered militia companies be organized into North, South and East Regiments–with a goal of increasing the militias’ accountability to the colonial government, efficacy, and responsiveness in conflicts with indigenous Pequot Indians. Under this act, white males between the ages of 16 and 60 were obligated to possess arms and to play a part in the defense of their communities by serving in nightly guard details and participating in weekly drills. After the United States came into existence, state militias would develop out of this tradition.

The visit of the Marquis de Lafayette to the U.S., in 1824-25, was in every sense a triumphal procession. The 2nd Battalion, 11th New York Artillery, was one of many militia commands who turned out in welcome. This unit decided to adopt the title “National Guard,” in honor of Lafayette’s celebrated Garde Nationale de Paris. The Battalion, later the 7th Regiment, was prominent in the line of march on the occasion of Lafayette’s final passage through New York en route home to France. Taking note of the troops named for his old command, Lafayette alighted from his carriage, walked down the line, clasping each officer by the hand as he passed. “National Guard” was destined to become the name of the U.S. militia.

Other Events on this Day

• In 1636…
  The Massachusetts Bay Colony organizes militia units into three regiments, an event the National Guard recognizes as its birthday.
• In 1862…
  Confederate forces win a major victory at the Battle of Fredericksburg, Virginia.
• In 1918…
  Woodrow Wilson becomes the first U.S. president in office to visit Europe when he arrives in France for the post-World War I peace conference.
• In 2003…
  U.S. forces capture former Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein, pulling him from a “spider hole” under a farmhouse near his hometown of Tikrit.

Dates and events based on:

William J. Bennett and John Cribb, (2008) The American Patriot’s Almanac Daily Readings on America. (Kindle Edition)

Background information is from Wikipedia articles on:

The National Guard that can be found at…
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Guard_of_the_United_States