Prof. Boerner's Explorations

by Gerald Boerner

Today we continue our examination of the characteristics of the photo paper that you will use in your inkjet printer. Not all inkjet printers will print on all surfaces of media and some types of media require certain types of ink that are only found in specific printers. Thus, we have a situation where the printer, ink and paper must be carefully selected.

Add to this quandary the whole issue of the permanence of the ink used in inkjet printers, we have a very important set of choices that must be made by the photographer when choosing his/her inkjet printing setup. This is the chief reason that many photographers only use their inkjet printers for proofing, not for final images. Professional quality images require the more expensive printers that use the more expensive inks.

Fortunately, for most people, including the casual photographer, the decision is much easier. Most inkjet photo printers are capable of producing adequate output for the photo album, scrapbook and home display photos. It is only when we get into the high-end, fine art printing that we encounter the complication..  GLB

“It’s called a pen. It’s like a printer, hooked straight to my brain.”
— Dale Dauten

“The darkroom is just the means to an end.”
— Kim Weston

“For me the printing process is part of the magic of photography. It’s that magic that can be exciting, disappointing, rewarding and frustrating all in the same few moments in the darkroom.”
— John Sexton

“I never stopped photographing. There were a couple of years when I didn’t have a darkroom, but that didn’t stop me from photographing.”
— Imogen Cunningham

“When I’m about ready to press the cable release on the View camera, I’ve tried to anticipate some of the challenges I’m going to encounter in the darkroom.”
— John Sexton

“Eventually, if you had a printer that is IPP compliant, that printer will have a Web address and anyone around the world who can get on the Internet can print to that URL.”
— Robert Palmer

“It was amazing to watch him in the darkroom at an advanced age, still get excited when the results were pleasing. He still struggled like we all do in the darkroom and he struggled behind the camera, and when he had a success he was beaming.”
— John Sexton

“I’m pretty selective. I generally edit the contact sheets and then do work prints. Because I have my own lab and printers, I can afford the luxury of going through the contact sheets for black-and-white, making up work prints, seeing them big, and honing them down.”
— Herb Ritts

Note:
This posting is intended for the educational use of photographers and photography students and complies with the “educational fair use” provisions of copyright law. For readers who might wish to reuse some of these images should check out their compliance with copyright limitations that might apply to that use.

GLB

Choosing a Photo Printer: Selecting the Best Paper

An inkjet printer is a type of computer printer that reproduces a digital image by propelling variably-sized droplets of liquid material (ink) onto a page. Inkjet printers are the most common type of printer and range from small inexpensive consumer models to very large and expensive professional machines.

The concept of inkjet printing dates back to the 19th century and the technology was first developed in the early 1950s. Starting in the late 1970s inkjet printers that could reproduce digital images generated by computers were developed, mainly by Epson, Hewlett-Packard and Canon. In the worldwide consumer market, four manufacturers account for the majority of inkjet printer sales: Canon, Hewlett-Packard, Epson, and Lexmark.

Inkjets—Printing Paper

One of the best sources of information about digital imaging and cameras is found on the Short Courses web site. The ebooks on this site provide a wide variety of great information on topics, including printing paper. Below, I have excerpted a brief summary from one of these books for your convenience. Please check out the full source via the link provided in the Reference section.

Although silver-halide and thermal printers require special papers, inkjets will print on almost any surface. In fact, the way your printed digital images look, and how well they age, depends a great deal on the paper you print them on and how you store them. If you’re just printing copies to hang on the refrigerator door, you’re probably not thinking about this. After a few months, when the pictures have shifted to green, or faded, you’ll just toss them. But there are times when you don’t want to be so casual with your prints. Since it takes time to capture, edit, and print images it’s nice if they last long enough to be enjoyed by generations to come.

Paper Types

There are four common types of photo-quality inkjet paper: RC, cast coated, and swellable papers usually used with dye inks, and cotton rag fine art papers used with pigment inks.

Coated Papers

• RC (Resin Coated) Papers…
  These papers are constructed much like silver-halide resin coated paper so they feel like traditional pints. A sheet of paper is sandwiched between layers of plastic and the top layer is coated with a polymer designed to receive the ink. If you put a drop of water on this layer, it is slowly absorbed and dries without leaving ripples in the paper. Images stay glossy because the ink is absorbed by the polymer layer and not the paper base although the water resistance of the top layer varies from brand to brand. These papers have the widest color range (gamut) and can be divided into three sub-categories based on their finish:
• Glossy Papers…
  These papers, called an F surface, has a very shiny, almost reflective surface.
• Luster/Satin Papers…
  These papers, called an E surface, has a bumpy repeating surface that varies in depth depending on the manufacturer.
• Semi-matte Papers…
  These papers, called an N surface, has a luster without any texture.

If you gently bend a corner of an RC paper, you’ll hear a slight cracking sound. You can even bend a print somewhat without creasing it. The paper also resists tears, kinks, and abrasions. An anticurling layer on the back side keeps the print flat, even when it’s humid or large amounts of ink are used on the front side.

Uncoated Papers

• Porous papers…
  These papers, also called microporous, nanoporous, nanoceramic, microceramic or photobase, often have banners on the package reading "Quick Dry" or "Instant Dry". They have short drying times because they are so absorbent that water in the ink evaporates more quickly. However, their longevity is less than that of other papers. When combined with dye-based inks,these papers are susceptibility to damage from ozone. One way to identify a microporous high-gloss paper is to rub your finger across its surface. It will squeak and prevent your finger from sliding smoothly because the paper is so absorbent it absorbs the tiny traces of oil and moisture on your finger that would otherwise act as a lubricant on a smooth surface.

If you immediately frame one of these prints behind glass, the inside of the glass may fog. This fog, which looks something like a ghost image, is created by ink solvents leaving the paper before it is completely cured. These solvents dry at a slower rate than water so even when a print feels dry, they may not have completely dissipated. This process, called outgassing, occurs with all porous papers because these papers have a barrier that creates brighter, glossier prints by keeping the inks near the surface, but which prevents them from penetrating into the paper where they can dissipate. Other types of papers absorb the inks and do not have this problem. To prevent outgassing, Epson recommends you let a new print sit for 15 minutes, then place a sheet of inexpensive plain uncoated paper on top of it for 24 hours to absorb the solvents and accelerate the outgassing. If you are stacking prints, interleave plain paper between each pair. After 24 hours, if the paper is still wavy, replace the plain paper sheets and let the prints stand for another 24 hours. It also helps if you use proper framing procedures, including preventing contact between the print and the inside of the glass or UV acrylic.

How to Choose the Right Photo Paper?

Let’s start out by considering two main questions. Rick Tunning, in his HubPages posting, addresses these questions in the following ways. Please check out the full article via the link in the Reference section below.

Getting the best prints on your inkjet printer is usually comes determined by selecting the right paper. You’ve probably seen beautiful samples of what the latest photo inkjets can do. Getting those results at home can be difficult, especially if you don’t use a professional grade of photo paper. And by printing your digital photos at home; you keep control over every aspect including color and cropping.

What About the Printer Manufacturer’s Papers?

The big printer companies like Canon, Epson, and Hewlett-Packard, offer their own complete lines of inks and papers. And it’s no surprise each manufacturer claims that you’ll get the best results when you use their paper and ink. They even claim third party products will void your warranty. This is not true!

Their photo printers are typically designed to work by using inks and paper to yield the best results. Using cheap office supply paper with your inkjet printer, may cause the ink to spread too far into the paper before drying, which causes bad colors, lower print resolution, and a dull image.

Which Paper Is Best for Everyday Printing?

The paper offered by your local camera, computer, or office supply store can be fraught with many dangers.

Use the least expensive papers you can buy. They are usually sold for everyday printing "inkjet paper" or just "photo paper." This type of paper is porous and usually lacks a protective polymer coating. It’s very inexpensive, and your prints will dry much more quickly than when you use photo-grade papers.

The downside is the prints will be somewhat dull; the colors won’t look as good; and the inks will fade much quicker; but you’ll pay fraction of the cost of professional paper.

However your photos may last only a few months if they’re left exposed to direct sunlight or contaminants in the air. Of course, if you’re just printing letting the kids print web pages or homework assignments, that won’t matter.

Picking the Perfect Photo Paper

PCWorld, in its Digital Focus blog, extends the above questions in its recent article “Digital Focus: Pick the Perfect Photo Paper”. Check out the full series of posts starting at the link in the Reference section below.

In the old days, printing photos was easy. You’d take a roll of pictures to the corner drug store, and you’d have your prints a few days later. There were disadvantages, of course: You had no control over the color, cropping, or exposure, and the quality of the prints was totally out of your control. But it was easy.

These days, printing your digital photos is a very different experience: You have tons of control. But even after using an image editor to make all the tweaks you need to get an outstanding image, a great printout can still be elusive as that gopher in the movie "Caddy Shack." So what’s the final component to a top-quality print?

Getting great results with your inkjet printer usually comes down to picking the right paper. We’ve all seen gorgeous prints on display at the computer store–samples of what you could accomplish with the newest photo-quality inkjet printers. But getting those same results at home can be difficult if you don’t feed the right paper into your printer. This week, let’s talk about how to choose paper.

Believe the Printer Manufacturer

It’s no secret that the big names in printers–companies like Canon, Epson, and Hewlett-Packard–offer their own complete lines of inks and papers. Each manufacturer claims that you’ll get the best results when you use their products with their printers, and they warn you to steer clear of paper sold by other companies.

And believe it or not, they’re generally right. Photo printers are typically designed to work with specific inks and papers to yield the best results. Using Brand X paper with your particular inkjet printer, for instance, may cause the ink to spread too far into the paper before drying, which causes inaccurate colors, lower print resolution, and a dull finish. In most cases, you really do get the best results by sticking with the inks and papers recommended by your printer’s manufacturer.

Which Paper Is Best?

Once you’ve decided to stick with your printer’s brand of paper, you still have some decisions to make. The paper section at your local camera, computer, or office supply store can be fraught with many seemingly similar choices.

Consider Epson, for instance. The company offers a broad selection of papers with names like DuraBrite, Premium Glossy, Photo Quality Glossy, and ColorLife. But let’s keep it simple. You’ll get the best results when you match the paper to the kind of ink you are using. Epson’s Premium Glossy Photo Paper is the right choice for most Epson printers, but if your printer uses DuraBrite ink, then use DuraBrite Ink Glossy Photo Paper instead. For less formal photo printing–and where print quality and longevity are not the prime factors–you can use Epson’s less-expensive All Purpose Glossy Paper.

Canon has made your choice easier. Just look for the colored stripe that runs down the center of all its paper packages: Papers with a gold stripe are premium blends intended for the highest-quality prints, while bronze identifies the paper as an everyday variety.

HP sells a line of paper called Premium Plus. This is the top-of-the-line photo paper for HP printers. For routine photo printing, you want to print on HP Premium paper–which, HP claims, is slightly better than the kind of paper used by your local photo lab.

Where Do We Go from Here?

To get a a more specific idea of what papers are available, you can check the catalog from your local office supply store, like a Staples or Office Depot, for their selection. Generally these stores only carry their store brand or the papers put out by the major printer manufacturers. These papers will generally work for for your proof prints and snapshots.

For papers used for fine art prints, exhibition prints, or sale, you will probably want to consider some of the more advanced papers. These can be found in the catalogs from photographic supply vendors like Freestyle Photographic Supply. These papers each have their own special characteristics and may cost from $1 to $5 per page, depending on the paper and size. These papers may also require the use of specific high-end printers and special types of ink.

Happy printing…

References:

Background and biographical information is from Wikipedia articles on:

Wikipedia: Printers (Computing)…
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photo_Printer

Wikipedia: Inkjet Printers…
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inkjet_printers

Wikipedia: Inkjet Paper…
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inkjet_paper

Web Sites and Blogs:

Hub Pages: “How to Choose the Right Photo Paper?”…
http://hubpages.com/hub/How-to-Choose-the-Right-Photo-Paper

PCWorld: “Digital Focus: Pick the Perfect Photo Paper”… http://www.pcworld.com/article/121535/
digital_focus_pick_the_perfect_photo_paper.html

Short Courses: “Displaying and Sharing your Photos”…
http://www.shortcourses.com/display/display2-6.html

Brainy Quote: Darkroom Quotes…
http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/justice_3.html

by Gerald Boerner

We are continuing our examination today with our series of postings that examines the likely nominees for the Supreme Court vacancy that will result from the retirement of Justice John Paul Stevens in June. Interestingly, most of the leading candidates are women, and women of extensive legal experience. We will be interested to see whether the expediency of getting the nominee confirmed will overshadow the selection of the most prepared, most experienced, and most appropriate person for that position..  GLB

“Peace and justice are two sides of the same coin.”
— Dwight D. Eisenhower

“Charity is no substitute for justice withheld.”
— Saint Augustine

“Justice is a certain rectitude of mind whereby a man does what he ought to do in the circumstances confronting him.”
— Saint Thomas Aquinas

“In the absence of justice, what is sovereignty but organized robbery?”
— Saint Augustine

“Family life is too intimate to be preserved by the spirit of justice. It can be sustained by a spirit of love which goes beyond justice.”
— Reinhold Niebuhr

“There are matters in the Bible, said to be done by the express commandment of God, that are shocking to humanity and to every idea we have of moral justice.”
— Thomas Paine

“Though force can protect in emergency, only justice, fairness, consideration and cooperation can finally lead men to the dawn of eternal peace.”
— Dwight D. Eisenhower

“Where justice is denied, where poverty is enforced, where ignorance prevails, and where any one class is made to feel that society is an organized conspiracy to oppress, rob and degrade them, neither persons nor property will be safe.”
— Frederick Douglass

Supreme Court Candidates: Elena Kagan

President Barack Obama has made one appointment to the Supreme Court of the United States, that of Judge Sonia Sotomayor to fill the vacancy created by the retirement of Associate Justice David H. Souter. Sotomayor was confirmed by the United States Senate on August 6, 2009. He will additionally have the opportunity to fill the vacancy created by John Paul Stevens, who has announced his intention to retire at the end of the court’s term in June 2010. Speculation has also focused on the potential retirement of 77-year-old Ruth Bader Ginsburg, who has been diagnosed with pancreatic cancer.

Court demographics

Demographic considerations have played into the appointment of Supreme Court justices since the institution was established. Starting in the twentieth century, these concerns shifted from geographic representation to issues of gender and ethnicity.

Prior to the 2008 presidential election, many court watchers suggested that the next president would be under significant pressure to appoint another woman or ethnic minority to the court. The case for naming more women was particularly widespread given the recent retirement of Sandra Day O’Connor and the rapidly changing demographics of the legal community, with women now accounting for about a fifth of all law partners and law school deans, a quarter of the federal bench, and nearly half of all law school graduates. Shortly before the election, for example, NPR reported, "Most observers of the Supreme Court agree about one thing: The next nominee is likely to be a woman". Furthermore, after Obama’s presidential election victory, Hispanic legal interests groups such as the Hispanic National Bar Association began urging Obama to nominate a Hispanic justice.

Given the relative youth of the most recent Republican appointments, it was also noted that Democrats had, "a strong incentive to pick younger justices this time around". Age proved to be an important consideration for Obama, who was "looking for a justice who will be an intellectual force on the court for many years to come". As a result, Obama did not seriously consider candidates such as Jose Cabranes, Amalya Kearse, Diana Gribbon Motz, David Tatel, and Laurence Tribe, all of whom he respected but were older than 65 when Obama was looking to replace David Souter.

Introducing Elena Kagan

Diane Pamela Wood (Born: 1950) is a federal judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, and a Senior Lecturer at the University of Chicago Law School.

Wood was born in Plainfield, New Jersey. When she was young, she moved with her family to Texas, where her mother still lives. Wood graduated with a B.A. from the University of Texas at Austin’s Plan II Honors program in 1971. She earned her J.D. from the University of Texas School of Law in 1975, where she was an editor of the Texas Law Review, graduated with high honors and Order of the Coif, and was among the first women at the University of Texas admitted as a member of the Friar Society. Wood then clerked for Judge Irving Goldberg of the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals from 1975 to 1976 and for Associate Justice Harry Blackmun of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1976 to 1977. She was among the first women to clerk at the Supreme Court.

After working in private practice and the Executive Branch, Wood became the third woman ever hired as a law professor at the University of Chicago Law School. Wood was nominated to the Seventh Circuit by President Bill Clinton on March 31, 1995. She was confirmed unanimously by the United States Senate and received her commission on June 30, 1995. Neil A. Lewis has called Wood an “unflinching and spirited intellectual counterweight" to the Seventh Circuit’s Richard Posner and Frank Easterbrook.

Recently, many commentators have called Wood a leading candidate for nomination to the U.S. Supreme Court by President Barack Obama. She was a candidate to replace Justice David Souter when he retired, though that seat went to Sonia Sotomayor, and she has another chance to be named now that Justice John Paul Stevens has decided to retire in summer 2010.

College and Law School

Wood went on to the University of Texas at Austin, in the Plan II Honors program. In May 1971, after three years of study, Wood earned a B.A. with highest honors and special honors in English. At the time, she intended to go on to graduate studies in comparative literature. However, she decided to go to law school instead, and enrolled in the University of Texas School of Law in 1972. During law school, Wood was an editor of the Texas Law Review and a member of the Women’s Legal Caucus. Wood earned her J.D. from the University of Texas School of Law in 1975, graduating at the top of her class with high honors and Order of the Coif.

Professional Career

Wood clerked for Judge Irving Goldberg of the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals from 1975 to 1976 and for Associate Justice Harry Blackmun of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1976 to 1977. Wood was one of the first women to serve as a law clerk for a Supreme Court Justice. After clerking at the Supreme Court, Wood was an attorney-advisor for the Office of the Legal Adviser of the U.S. Department of State from 1977 to 1978. From 1978 to 1980, she practiced at the law firm Covington & Burling in Washington, D.C.

Wood began her teaching career as an assistant professor of law at Georgetown University from 1980 to 1981. In 1981, Wood settled in Chicago and joined the faculty of the University of Chicago Law School. She was the third woman ever hired as a law professor at the University of Chicago and the only woman on the faculty when she began in 1981. Wood served as Professor of Law from 1989-1992, Associate Dean from 1990-1995, and (as the first woman to be honored with a named chair) the Harold J. and Marion F. Green Professor of International Legal Studies from 1992-1995. Since her appointment to the Seventh Circuit, Wood has continued to teach at the University of Chicago Law School as a Senior Lecturer in Law, along with fellow Seventh Circuit judges Frank Easterbrook and Richard Posner.

Wood was a special assistant to the Assistant Attorney General at the U.S. Department of Justice from 1985 to 1987. From 1993 to 1995, she served as Deputy Assistant Attorney General for international, appellate, and policy in the Antitrust Division of the Department of Justice.

Wood holds memberships in the American Law Institute and the American Society of International Law. She is also a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and serves on its Midwest Council. In the past, she was also a member of the American Bar Association. She has served on the governing councils of the ABA’s Section of Antitrust Law and its Section of International Law and Practice. Wood has pursued various law reform projects through the American Bar Association and the Brookings Institution Project on Civil Justice Reform. She was also instrumental in developing the University of Chicago’s first policy on sexual harassment.

Federal Judicial Service

Wood was nominated by President Bill Clinton on March 31, 1995, to a seat vacated when William Joseph Bauer took senior status. She was confirmed unanimously by the United States Senate and received her commission on June 30, 1995. Wood became the second woman ever to sit on the Seventh Circuit. On the bench, Wood is known for building consensus on the court and rallying other judges around her positions.

Wood is considered a likely candidate for the U.S. Supreme Court in the event President Obama was given the opportunity to appoint someone to the bench. The speculation intensified after Justice David Souter’s retirement announcement, and Wood was the first candidate interviewed for the post by President Obama, who met with her at the White House while she was visiting from Chicago.

Noteworthy Rulings

Among her more important rulings from the bench are:

• Walker v. O’Brien, 216 F.3d 626 (7th Cir. 2000):
  Wood, writing for the panel, held that the requirements of the Prison Litigation Reform Act do not apply to properly characterized habeas corpus actions because those actions are not “civil actions” within the meaning of the Act.

• Fornalik v. Perryman, 223 F.3d 523 (7th Cir. 2000):
  Wood, writing for the panel, held that an Immigration and Naturalization Service district office order putting a minor alien in deferred status pending an application to proceed as an abused child of a visa recipient under the Violence Against Women Act took precedence over an earlier removal order issued by another INS district office.

• Goldwasser v. Ameritech Corp., 222 F.3d 390 (7th Cir. 2000):
  Wood, writing for the panel, held that a violation of the 1996 Telecommunications Act was not sufficient to state a claim under general antitrust laws.

• Illinois ex rel. Ryan v. Brown, 227 F.3d 1042 (7th Cir. 2000):
  Wood, writing for the panel, held that the State of Illinois itself, rather than taxpayer plaintiffs, was the correct party to sue under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) to recover losses stemming from a corrupt loan to public official.

• Solid Waste Agency v. United States Army Corps of Engineers, 191 F.3d 845 (1999):
  Wood, writing for the panel, held that the decision to regulate isolated waters based on their actual use as a habitat by migratory birds was within Congress’ power under the Commerce Clause. The Supreme Court reversed. 531 U.S. 159 (2001).

• National Organization for Women v. Scheidler, 267 F.3d 687 (7th Cir. 2001):
  Wood, writing for the panel, held that the district court did not err in concluding that the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act authorized private plaintiffs to seek injunctive relief. In addition, the court recognized the First Amendment protected the rights of abortion protesters but held that the injunction issued by the district court, which prohibited violent conduct by protesters, struck a proper balance and avoided any risk of curtailing activities protected by the First Amendment. The Supreme Court reversed. 537 U.S. 393 (2003). Many have misinterpreted the decision as one primarily concerned with the rights of abortion protesters, but Supreme Court commentators clarify, "Wood’s opinion was a judgment primarily about injunctive relief and the breadth of the racketeering statute, not on the right to provide an abortion or to protest."

• St. John’s United Church of Christ v. City of Chicago, 502 F.3d 616 (7th Cir. 2007):
  Wood, writing for the majority, held that the O’Hare Modernization Act’s amendment of the Illinois Religious Freedom Restoration Act did not violate the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment because it was a law of general applicability that did not target the plaintiff Church.

• United States v. Warner & Ryan, 498 F.3d 666 (7th Cir. 2007):
  Wood, writing for the majority, affirmed the convictions on various criminal charges of former Illinois Governor George Ryan and his associate Lawrence E. Warner.

• Bloch v. Frischholz, 533 F.3d 562 (7th Cir. 2008) (in dissent):
  The majority of a panel of the Seventh Circuit held that a condominium associate could prohibit residents from putting objects on their doors without violating the Fair Housing Act. The result was that Jewish residents could not put mezuzot on their doorposts. Dissenting, Wood argued plaintiffs had established a claim for intentional religious discrimination under the Fair Housing Act because there was sufficient evidence in the record to conclude that the rule was being applied in a way that would constitute a constructive eviction of observant Jews. The en banc Seventh Circuit reheard the case and unanimously reversed the panel majority in Bloch v. Frischholz, 587 F.3d 771 (7th Cir. 2009), siding with Judge Wood’s position. Observers have recognized that Wood was able to rally the whole court around a position protective of religious freedom and practice.

• Germano v. International Profit Association, 544 F.3d 798 (7th Cir. 2008):
  Wood, writing for the panel, held that statements transmitted by deaf individuals using a communications assistant in a telecommunications relay service conversation are not hearsay.

• Bayo v. Napolitano, No. 07-1069 (7th Cir. Jan. 20, 2010) (en banc):
  Wood, writing for the unanimous en banc court, held that an alien fraudulently entering the United States under the Visa Waiver Program (VWP) must be held to the terms of the VWP waiver; that a waiver of procedural rights under the VWP must be knowingly and voluntarily made; and that an alien who entered under the VWP has an independent right to adjust status based on marriage to a United States citizen only during the 90-day VWP window of authorized presence in the United States.

A Perspective

The Huffington Post recently posted an article on Diane Wood and her status in the nomination competition for a Supreme Court nomination. Check out the full article from the link in the Reference section below.

Diane Wood, a 14-year veteran of the Chicago 7th Circuit Court of Appeals, was an early name tossed into the ring as a possible Obama Supreme Court nominee to replace retiring David Souter.

Wood received her bachelor’s degree from the University of Texas at Austin in 1971, where she also earned her J.D. in 1975. She later clerked for Judge Irving Goldberg of the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals from 1975 to 1976 and for Associate Justice Harry Blackmun of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1976 to 1977.

Wood worked as an attorney for the State Department in the late ’70s and later served as a special assistant to the assistant Attorney General at the U.S. Department of Justice from 1985 to 1987.

She has made a reputation as a strong liberal voice on an otherwise conservative bench and her name was decidedly in the mix when speculation first arose that Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg would retire due to medical issues. The one downside: her position on abortion rights has already sparked the ire of conservatives and pro-life groups, portending a potentially contentious confirmation process.

References:

Background and biographical information is from Wikipedia articles on:

Wikipedia: Diane Wood… 
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elena_Kagan

Wikipedia: Barak Obama Supreme Court Candidates…
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama_Supreme_Court_candidates

Other Web Sites:

The Huffington Post: “Diane Wood. Supreme Court Nominee? All You Need to Know”…
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/05/01/diane-wood-supreme-court_n_194543.html

Brainy Quote: Justice Quotes…
http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/justice.html

by Gerald Boerner

We all celebrated when the Apollo 11 astronauts landed and walked on the moon. I remember where I was, do you? I watched the proceedings attentively on TV and marveled at the amazing feat that they accomplished. Two missions later, the most memorable thing that most of us recall are the words: “Houston, we’ve got a problem”…

The mission and its astronauts were in danger. Mission control managed to relay a band aid fix that scrubbed the activities of the mission and the Apollo 13 returned to earth safely. But the successful missions of the space program had to face one more problem; but life goes on.  GLB

“Apollo Records signed me for my gospel ability.”
— Solomon Burke

“At this point in my career, Apollo 13 is a million light years away.”
— Kathleen Quinlan

“He who commands an Apollo flight will not command a second one.”
— Wally Schirra

“Every human being has within him an ideal man, just as every piece of marble contains in a rough state a statue as beautiful as the one that Praxiteles the Greek made of the god Apollo.”
— Jose Marti

“In Congress, I am a strong supporter of the New Apollo Energy Act. This plan would help to establish our energy independence, create jobs, and provide cleaner, reliable, and more affordable energy.”
— Allyson Schwartz

“I think I was very interested in the space program as a kid, watching the first Apollo missions to the moon, and it’s something I thought that would be a lot of, of fun and exciting and a very worthwhile job.”
— Mark Kelly

“I grew up watching a lot of the coverage of the early U.S. space program, all the way back starting with Mercury and then through Gemini and Apollo and of course going to the moon as the main part of the Apollo program.”
— Linda M. Godwin

“Apollo 13, as you may remember, gave us a reactor that is bubbling away right now somewhere in the Pacific. It’s supposed to be bubbling away on the moon, but it’s in the Pacific Ocean instead.”
— David R. Brower

Apollo 13

Apollo 13 was the third Apollo mission intended to land on the Moon, but a mid-mission oxygen tank rupture caused sufficient damage to force the lunar landing to be aborted. The flight was commanded by James A. Lovell, with John L. “Jack” Swigert command module pilot, and Fred W. Haise lunar module pilot.

The mission launched on April 11, 1970 at 13:13 CST. Two days later, en route to the Moon, a fault in the electrical system of one of the Service Module’s oxygen tanks produced an overpressure rupture which caused a loss of electrical power and failure of both oxygen tanks. The Command Module remained functional on its own batteries and oxygen tank, which were only designed to support the vehicle during the last hours of flight. The crew shut down the Command Module and used the Lunar Module as a “lifeboat” during the return trip to earth.

Despite great hardship caused by limited power, loss of cabin heat, shortage of potable water, and the critical need to jury-rig the carbon dioxide removal system, the crew returned safely to Earth on April 17, and the mission was termed a “successful failure”. A misquotation of the radio transmission made by Swigert and repeated by Lovell (“…Houston, we’ve had a problem…”) has become widely quoted in popular culture as “Houston, we have a problem.”

Mission Highlights

Apollo 13 launches from
Kennedy Space Center,
April 11, 1970.

The Apollo 13 mission was to explore the Fra Mauro formation, or Fra Mauro highlands, named after the 80-kilometer-diameter Fra Mauro crater located within it. It is a widespread, hilly geological (or selenological) area thought to be composed of ejecta from the impact that formed Mare Imbrium. The cost of the mission was $4.4 billion. The next Apollo mission, Apollo 14, eventually made a successful flight to Fra Mauro.

The mission began with a little-known malfunction: during the second-stage boost, the center (inboard) engine shut down two minutes early. The four outboard engines burned longer to compensate, and the vehicle continued to a successful orbit. The shutdown was determined to be due to dangerous pogo oscillations that might have torn the second stage apart. The engine experienced 68g vibrations at 16 hertz, flexing the thrust frame by 3 inches (76 mm).^[8] The engine shutdown was triggered by sensed thrust chamber pressure fluctuations. Smaller pogo oscillations had been seen on previous Titan and Saturn flights (notably Apollo 6), but on Apollo 13 they were amplified by an unexpected interaction with turbopump cavitation. Later missions implemented anti-pogo modifications that had been under development. These included addition of a helium gas reservoir to the center engine liquid oxygen line to dampen pressure oscillations, an automatic cutoff as a backup, and simplification of the propellant valves of all five second-stage engines.

Oxygen Tank Rupture

Apollo 13′s damaged Service Module, as photographed from the Command Module after being jettisoned.

En route to the moon, 321,860 kilometers (199,990 mi) from Earth, the number two oxygen tank, one of two in the Service Module (SM), ruptured. Mission Control had asked the crew to stir the hydrogen and oxygen tanks, destratifying the contents and increasing the accuracy of their quantity readings. Damaged Teflon insulation on the wires to the stirrer motor in oxygen tank 2 allowed them to short and ignite the insulation. The resulting fire rapidly increased pressure beyond its nominal 1,000 psi (7 MPa) limit and either the tank or the tank dome failed. The cause was unknown at the time and the crew initially thought that a meteoroid might have struck the Lunar Module (LM).

The failure also damaged either the number one oxygen tank or its plumbing. Its contents leaked out over the next several hours, entirely depleting the SM supply. Because the service module fuel cells combined hydrogen and oxygen to generate electricity and water, they shut down and left the command module (CM) on limited battery power. The crew was forced to shut down the CM completely and to use the LM, still attached to the Command/Service Module (CSM), as a “lifeboat”. This had been suggested during an earlier training simulation but had not been considered a likely scenario. Without the LM, the accident would certainly have been fatal.

Interior of the Lunar Module, showing the “mailbox” built
to adapt the Command Module‘s lithium hydroxide canisters
(designed to reduce build-up of carbon dioxide) to fit the
LM’s environmental systems as most of the LM’s supply
of canisters were stored outside the cabin where they
would ordinarily be retrieved during EVA.

The damage to the service module made safe return from a lunar landing impossible. With Mission Control’s decision to fly a circumlunar abort, the moon’s gravity was used to return the ship to Earth. Apollo 13 had initially been on a free return trajectory that would have automatically resulted in a return to Earth with no additional engine firings, but the planned lunar landing at Fra Mauro required leaving the free return trajectory early in the mission. Returning to the free return trajectory required a significant change that would have been a small burn with the SM Service Propulsion System engine, but the condition of the engine was unknown. After extensive discussion, the return to a free return trajectory was performed with the LM descent propulsion system within hours of the accident. The descent engine was fired again two hours after pericynthion (closest approach to the moon) for a PC+2 burn to speed the return. One more descent engine burn was later required for a minor course correction.

Considerable ingenuity under extreme pressure was required from the crew, flight controllers and support personnel for the safe return. The developing drama was shown on television. Because electrical power was severely limited, no more live TV broadcasts were made; TV commentators used models and animated footage as illustrations. Low power levels made even voice communications difficult.

The LM “lifeboat” consumables were intended only to sustain two people for two days, not three people for four days. Oxygen was the least critical consumable because the LM carried enough to repressurize the LM after each surface EVA. Unlike the CSM, which was powered by fuel cells that produced water as a byproduct, the LM was powered by silver-zinc batteries so electrical power and especially water were critical consumables. To keep the LM life support and communication systems operational until re-entry, the LM was powered down to the lowest levels possible.

Another serious limitation was lithium hydroxide (LiOH) for removing carbon dioxide. The LM’s internal stock of LiOH canisters was not sufficient to support the crew until return, and the remainder was stored in the descent stage, out of reach. The CM had an adequate supply of canisters, but these were incompatible with the LM. Ground controllers improvised a way to join the cube-shaped CM canisters to the LM’s circular canister-sockets by drawing air through them with a suit return hose. The astronauts called the jury-rigged device “the mailbox.”

The thermal design of the spacecraft assumed normal operating power levels, so the survival power level caused internal temperatures to drop considerably. Water condensed in the CM, causing concern that this might damage electrical systems when it was reactivated. This turned out not to be a problem, partly because of the extensive CM safeguards instituted after the Apollo 1 fire.

As Apollo 13 neared Earth, the crew first jettisoned the Service Module so pictures could be taken for later analysis. The crew reported that the Sector 3 panel enclosing the fuel cells, hydrogen, and oxygen tanks was missing for the entire length of the SM.

After jettisoning the lunar module Aquarius, command module Odyssey splashed down safely in the Pacific. The crew was in good condition except for Haise who was suffering from a serious urinary tract infection because of insufficient water intake. To avoid altering the trajectory of the spacecraft, the crew had been instructed to temporarily stop urine dumps. A misunderstanding prompted the crew to store all urine for the rest of the flight.

Cause of the accident

The crew of Apollo 13 onboard the
USS Iwo Jima following splashdown

The tank rupture on Apollo 13 led to a lengthy investigation which, based on detailed manufacturing records and logs, determined the cause of the tank failure an unlikely chain of events. Tanks storing cryogens, such as liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen, require either venting, extremely good insulation, or both, in order to avoid excessive pressure buildup due to vaporization. The Service Module oxygen tanks were so well insulated that they could safely contain supercritical hydrogen and oxygen for years. Each oxygen tank held several hundred pounds of oxygen, which was used for breathable air and the production of electricity and water. However, the construction of the tank made internal inspection of the tank impossible.

The tank contained several components relevant to the accident:

• a quantity sensor;
• a fan to stir the tank contents for more accurate quantity measurements;
• a heater to vaporize liquid oxygen as needed;
• a thermostat to protect the heater;
• a temperature sensor;
• fill and drain valves and piping.

The heater and protection thermostat were originally designed for the command module’s 28-volt DC bus. The specifications for the heater and thermostat were later changed to allow a 65-volt ground supply, in order to pressurize the tanks more rapidly. Beechcraft, the tank subcontractor, did not upgrade the thermostat to handle the higher voltage. The temperature sensor could not read above the highest operational temperature of the heater, which was approximately 100 °F (38 °C). This was not normally a problem because the thermostat was designed to open at 80 °F (27 °C).

The oxygen shelf carrying the oxygen tanks was originally installed in the Apollo 10 service module, but was removed to fix a potential electromagnetic interference problem. During removal, the shelf was accidentally dropped about 2 inches (5 cm) because a retaining bolt had not been removed. The tank appeared to be undamaged, but a loosely-fitting filling tube was apparently damaged, and photographs suggested that the close-out cap on the top of the tank may have hit the fuel cell shelf. The report of the Apollo 13 review board considers the probability of tank damage during this incident to be “rather low”.

After the tank was filled for ground testing, it could not be emptied through the normal drain line. To avoid delaying the mission by replacing the tank, the heater was connected to 65-volt ground power to boil-off the oxygen. Lovell signed off on this procedure. It should have taken a few days at the thermostatic opening temperature of 80 °F (27 °C). However, when the thermostat opened, the 65-volt supply fused its contacts closed and the heater remained powered.

This raised the temperature of the heater to an estimated 1,000 °F (540 °C). A chart recorder on the heater current showed that the heater was not cycling on and off, as it should have been if the thermostat was functioning correctly, but no one noticed it at the time. Because the temperature sensor could not read higher than 100 °F (38 °C), the monitoring equipment did not register the true temperature inside the tank. The gas evaporated in hours rather than days.

The sustained high temperatures melted the Teflon insulation on the fan power supply wires and left them exposed. When the tank was refilled with oxygen, it became a bomb waiting to go off. During the “cryo stir” procedure, fan power passed through the bare wires which apparently shorted, producing sparks and igniting the Teflon. This in turn boiled liquid oxygen faster than the tank vent could remove it.

The other oxygen tank or its piping, located near the failed tank, was damaged, allowing it to leak also. Design fixes included moving the tanks farther apart, and removing the stirring fans. This required adding a third tank, so that no tank would go below half full. An emergency battery was also added to another sector in the service module.

Popular culture

The 1974 movie Houston, We’ve Got a Problem, while set around the Apollo 13 incident, is a fictional drama about the crises faced by ground personnel, when the emergency disrupts their work schedules and places additional stress on their lives; only a couple of news clips and a narrator’s solemn voice deal with the actual problems.

Apollo 13, a film based on Lost Moon, Jim Lovell’s and Jeffrey Kluger’s book about the event, was released in 1995. It was directed by Ron Howard and starred Tom Hanks as Jim Lovell, Bill Paxton as Fred Haise, Kevin Bacon as Jack Swigert, Ed Harris as flight director Gene Kranz, Kathleen Quinlan as Marilyn Lovell and Gary Sinise as Ken Mattingly. Jim Lovell, Gene Kranz, and other principals have stated that this film depicted the events of the mission with reasonable accuracy, though some dramatic license was taken. Technical inaccuracies have also been noted. The film is among several to misquote Swigert’s famous statement, “Houston, we’ve had a problem”. However, the filmmakers purposely changed the line because the original quote made it seem that the problem had already passed. The film was a critical and box office success, and was nominated for several Academy Awards including Best Picture, Best Supporting Actor (Harris) and Best Supporting Actress (Quinlan). The film engendered new interest in the history of the Apollo program and American space flight in general.

Portions of the events surrounding the Apollo 13 mission are dramatized in episode “We Interrupt This Program” of the 1998 miniseries From the Earth to the Moon, co-produced by Ron Howard and Tom Hanks. The story is presented from the perspective of television reporters competing for coverage of the mission.

In 2008, an interactive theatrical show titled APOLLO 13: Mission Control premiered at BATS Theatre in Wellington, New Zealand. The production faithfully recreated the mission control consoles and audience members became part of the storyline. The show also featured a ‘guest’ astronaut each night – a member of the public who suited up and amongst other duties, stirred the oxygen tanks and said the line “Houston, we’ve had a problem”. This ‘replacement’ astronaut was a nod to Jack Swigert, who replaced Ken Mattingly shortly before the actual launch in 1970. The production toured to other cities in New Zealand in 2009 and an Australian tour is scheduled for 2010-2011.

References

Other Events on this Day:

• In 1945…
  American troops liberate the Buchenwald concentration camp in Germany.
• In 1947…
  Jackie Robinson becomes the first black baseball player in the major leagues when he plays an exhibition game as a Brooklyn Dodger.
• In 1951…
  President Truman relieves General Douglas MacArthur of command for publicity criticizing his Korean War policy.

Dates and events based on:

William J. Bennett and John Cribb, (2008) The American Patriot’s Almanac Daily Readings on America. (Kindle Edition)

Background information is from Wikipedia articles on:

Wikipedia: Apollo 13… 
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13

Brainy Quote: Apollo Quotes… 
http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/apollo.html